Carnation Revolution

The Carnation Revolution (Revolução dos Cravos) was a peaceful military coup that took place in Portugal on April 25, 1974, and led to the overthrow of the Estado Novo, the authoritarian regime that had ruled Portugal since 1933. This revolution was unique in its almost entirely nonviolent nature, with civilians placing carnations in the barrels of soldiers’ rifles, symbolizing the peaceful transition. It resulted in the restoration of democracy in Portugal and the end of the country’s colonial wars in Africa. The revolution had profound political, social, and economic impacts on Portugal and marked a significant moment in the broader wave of democratization in Europe during the 20th century.

Background to the Carnation Revolution
The Estado Novo Regime (1933–1974):
Authoritarian Rule: The Estado Novo (New State) was an authoritarian, corporatist regime established by António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. It was a deeply conservative regime, marked by censorship, political repression, and the suppression of civil liberties. The regime was based on principles of nationalism, Catholicism, and anti-communism, with a strong emphasis on traditional values and centralized control.

Salazar’s Leadership: Salazar ruled Portugal as a virtual dictator until 1968, when ill health forced him to step down. He was succeeded by Marcelo Caetano, who continued many of Salazar’s policies, though there were some attempts at limited economic and social reforms. Nonetheless, Caetano’s leadership failed to address the growing discontent among various sectors of society.

Colonial Wars and Economic Problems:
Portuguese Colonial Empire: At the time of the Carnation Revolution, Portugal was one of the last European powers to hold on to a significant overseas colonial empire. Its colonies included Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, and East Timor. The regime was determined to maintain its colonial possessions, even as decolonization swept through Africa and Asia in the decades following World War II.

Colonial Wars in Africa (1961–1974): In the early 1960s, independence movements began to emerge in Portugal’s African colonies, leading to the start of protracted wars in Angola (1961), Guinea-Bissau (1963), and Mozambique (1964). These wars, known as the Portuguese Colonial War, drained the country’s resources and caused widespread discontent among the Portuguese population and military. Thousands of Portuguese soldiers were sent to fight in brutal guerrilla conflicts, with no clear end in sight.

Economic Hardships: The Estado Novo regime’s focus on maintaining the colonial empire placed a heavy financial burden on Portugal. Military spending consumed a significant portion of the national budget, while economic development at home stagnated. The country’s poor economic performance and the regime’s resistance to modernization led to growing unrest, especially among young people, intellectuals, and the military.

Military Discontent:
Growing Disillusionment: By the early 1970s, dissatisfaction within the Portuguese military had reached a critical level. Many officers, particularly those who had served in the colonial wars, were frustrated by the government’s refusal to negotiate an end to the conflicts. They believed that continuing the wars was futile and only served to prolong the suffering of both Portuguese soldiers and the people in the colonies.

Movement of the Armed Forces (MFA): In response to this frustration, a group of military officers formed the Movimento das Forças Armadas (MFA, or Movement of the Armed Forces). The MFA was a clandestine group of younger, mid-ranking officers who sought to overthrow the Estado Novo regime and end the colonial wars. The group’s leaders, including Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho and Salgueiro Maia, carefully planned a coup to bring down the dictatorship and establish a democratic government in Portugal.

The Carnation Revolution: April 25, 1974
The Coup:
Operation “Fora”: The revolution began in the early hours of April 25, 1974, when the MFA launched its coup under the code name “Fora” (derived from the phrase “Forças Armadas Revolucionárias”). Military units loyal to the MFA seized control of key locations in Lisbon, including government buildings, radio stations, and airports, with minimal resistance. The coup was organized with precision and quickly neutralized most of the regime’s forces.

Radio Broadcasts and Public Support: One of the critical elements of the coup was the use of radio broadcasts to communicate with the public and call for peaceful resistance to the regime. At 12:20 a.m. on April 25, Rádio Renascença played the song “Grândola, Vila Morena”, a folk song by Zeca Afonso that had been banned by the regime and was used as a signal to begin the revolution. The song became an anthem of the revolution, symbolizing solidarity and opposition to dictatorship.

Civilian Involvement: As news of the coup spread, thousands of civilians took to the streets to support the soldiers. In a powerful display of solidarity, civilians began placing carnations in the barrels of soldiers’ rifles and on their uniforms, turning the coup into a peaceful uprising. The red carnation became the symbol of the revolution, giving it its name—the Carnation Revolution.

Collapse of the Regime:
Caetano’s Surrender: Despite the coup’s rapid success, Marcelo Caetano initially sought refuge in the Carmona Palace (now the Belém Palace) and demanded safe passage to Brazil. After negotiations, Caetano agreed to surrender to General António de Spínola, a senior military figure who had previously expressed criticism of the regime. Caetano was exiled to Brazil, marking the end of the Estado Novo regime without a violent confrontation.

The Aftermath: Transition to Democracy
The Provisional Government:
End of the Colonial Wars: One of the first actions of the new regime was to begin the process of ending the colonial wars and granting independence to Portugal’s African colonies. Between 1974 and 1975, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, and São Tomé and Príncipe all gained independence. The end of Portugal’s colonial empire was a significant consequence of the revolution and marked the final chapter of European colonialism in Africa.

Return to Civilian Rule: After the fall of the Estado Novo, the MFA established a provisional government and began organizing Portugal’s transition to democracy. General António de Spínola briefly served as president, but the MFA held significant power in the early months following the revolution. A series of provisional governments were formed, with political parties such as the Socialist Party, the Portuguese Communist Party, and the Social Democratic Party competing for influence.

The “Hot Summer” of 1975:
Struggles Between Political Factions: The period following the revolution, especially during 1975, was marked by political and social upheaval, known as the “Hot Summer”. Competing political factions, including communists, socialists, and conservatives, vied for control over the direction of the new government. There were strikes, demonstrations, and fears of a potential communist takeover, influenced by the MFA’s left-wing factions.

Coup Attempts and Crisis: Several factions within the military and political spheres attempted to seize power, leading to a crisis in the transition to democracy. However, moderate forces ultimately prevailed, and the threat of a communist or authoritarian takeover was averted.

The 1976 Constitution and Full Democratization:
New Constitution: In 1976, Portugal adopted a new democratic constitution, enshrining political freedoms, civil liberties, and a multiparty system. The constitution also established social rights, including the right to work and the right to education. The first free parliamentary elections were held in April 1976, solidifying Portugal’s transition to democracy.

End of Military Rule: After several years of military involvement in politics, the MFA gradually withdrew from direct political control, and civilian rule was fully restored. Mário Soares, leader of the Socialist Party, became prime minister, and the process of rebuilding Portugal’s democratic institutions began in earnest.

Long-Term Impact and Legacy
Social and Economic Reforms:
Nationalization and Economic Reform: In the immediate aftermath of the revolution, several key industries, including banks, transportation, and energy, were nationalized. The revolution also led to land reform in rural areas, particularly in the Alentejo region, where large estates were redistributed. These measures, however, created significant economic challenges for the country, and some of the early nationalizations were reversed in the following decades.

Economic Growth: Despite the early economic instability following the revolution, Portugal underwent significant modernization and economic growth in the decades that followed. The country became more integrated into the global economy and pursued membership in international organizations, eventually joining the European Economic Community (now the European Union) in 1986.

Political Stability:
Democratic Consolidation: The Carnation Revolution marked the beginning of a stable democratic era in Portugal. Despite the turbulent early years, Portugal successfully consolidated its democratic institutions. Since the revolution, Portugal has maintained a functioning democracy with regular elections, political pluralism, and respect for civil liberties.

End of European Colonialism: The revolution also signaled the end of European colonialism in Africa, as Portugal’s African colonies gained independence following the fall of the Estado Novo. This had significant geopolitical and economic implications for Portugal, as it shifted from being a colonial power to becoming more integrated with Europe.

Symbolism and Commemoration:
April 25 as a National Holiday: April 25, the day of the revolution, is celebrated annually in Portugal as Freedom Day (Dia da Liberdade).

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