Ruhollah Khomeini
Ruhollah Khomeini (1902–1989) was a highly influential Iranian religious leader and politician, best known for leading the Iranian Revolution of…
Ruhollah Khomeini (1902–1989) was a highly influential Iranian religious leader and politician, best known for leading the Iranian Revolution of 1979, which resulted in the overthrow of the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Khomeini became the Supreme Leader of Iran, the highest-ranking political and religious authority in the country, a position he held until his death in 1989. His role in the revolution and subsequent establishment of a theocratic state made him a central figure in modern Middle Eastern history.
Early Life and Religious Education
Birth and Family: Khomeini was born Ruhollah Musavi on September 24, 1902, in Khomein, a small town in central Iran. His family were religious scholars, and he was part of the Sayyid class, claiming descent from the Prophet Muhammad. His father, Mustafa Musavi, was a Shi’a cleric who was killed when Khomeini was an infant, leaving him to be raised by his mother and aunt.
Religious Education: Khomeini showed an early interest in religious studies and began his formal education in Islamic theology and jurisprudence at a young age. In his teenage years, he studied in Arak and later moved to the holy city of Qom, a major center for Shi’a scholarship. There, Khomeini trained under prominent clerics, developing a deep understanding of fiqh (Islamic law), philosophy, and mysticism. He eventually rose through the ranks to become an Ayatollah, a title given to high-ranking Shi’a clerics.
Political Awakening and Opposition to the Shah
Opposition to Western Influence: Throughout the mid-20th century, Iran was ruled by the Pahlavi dynasty, under Reza Shah Pahlavi and later his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Khomeini became increasingly critical of the Shah’s regime, particularly its close ties to the West, its secularization policies, and the marginalization of the Shi’a clergy. He viewed the Shah’s efforts to modernize and westernize Iran as antithetical to Islamic values.
Anti-Shah Activism: Khomeini’s political opposition came to the forefront in the early 1960s when the Shah initiated the White Revolution, a series of reforms aimed at modernizing Iran, including land redistribution, women’s suffrage, and educational reforms. While the reforms were intended to modernize Iran, Khomeini and other clerics saw them as a threat to traditional religious values and an imposition of Western-style secularism.
In 1963, Khomeini publicly denounced the Shah’s policies in fiery sermons and speeches, accusing him of being a puppet of the West, particularly the United States and Israel. His criticism led to his arrest in June 1963, sparking mass protests known as the June Uprising. Although the protests were suppressed, Khomeini’s stature as a national leader grew.
Exile: In 1964, Khomeini was exiled by the Shah’s government, first to Turkey and then to Iraq, where he lived in the holy city of Najaf for over a decade. From exile, Khomeini continued to influence the political discourse in Iran through writings, audio recordings, and messages smuggled into the country. During this time, he developed his political theory of “Velayat-e Faqih” (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist), which argued that an Islamic government should be led by a senior religious scholar who would rule based on Islamic law (Shari’a).
The Iranian Revolution
Growing Discontent in Iran: By the 1970s, discontent with the Shah’s rule had intensified due to rising inequality, political repression, and corruption. The Shah’s close ties with the United States, his lavish lifestyle, and his regime’s brutal secret police, SAVAK, alienated large segments of the population. Khomeini’s messages of opposition resonated with many Iranians, particularly the clergy, the working class, and intellectuals.
Return to Iran and Revolution: In 1978, widespread protests and strikes began to engulf Iran. These protests were initially driven by a wide array of groups, including secular nationalists, Marxists, and Islamic activists, but Khomeini soon emerged as the symbolic leader of the anti-Shah movement. In January 1979, the Shah, facing insurmountable opposition, left Iran. On February 1, 1979, after 15 years in exile, Khomeini returned to Iran to a hero’s welcome, greeted by millions of supporters.
By February 11, the Pahlavi regime had collapsed, and Khomeini and his followers quickly moved to consolidate power. A referendum was held in April 1979, in which the majority of Iranians voted in favor of establishing an Islamic Republic. Khomeini became the Supreme Leader, the highest political and religious authority in the newly established theocratic state.
The Islamic Republic of Iran
Velayat-e Faqih: Khomeini’s political theory, Velayat-e Faqih, became the foundational principle of the new Islamic government. It vested ultimate authority in the Supreme Leader, a senior cleric who would ensure that the country was governed according to Islamic law. This was a radical departure from traditional Shi’a political thought, which had historically emphasized clerical non-involvement in state affairs. Khomeini, however, argued that clerics should guide the political system to protect Islam and the people.
Cultural and Social Changes: Under Khomeini’s leadership, Iran underwent significant changes. The secular legal system of the Shah was replaced by one based on Shari’a law. Islamic dress codes, such as the mandatory wearing of the hijab for women, were enforced. Western cultural influences were purged, and there was a significant emphasis on promoting Islamic values in all aspects of public life, including education, media, and governance.
Crackdown on Opposition: The early years of the Islamic Republic were marked by a crackdown on political opposition. Secular groups, leftists, and rival Islamic factions that had played a role in the revolution were systematically marginalized or eliminated. Khomeini’s regime suppressed dissent, including executing thousands of political opponents during the 1988 prison massacres.
The Iran Hostage Crisis (1979–1981): One of the most significant international incidents during Khomeini’s rule was the Iran Hostage Crisis, which began in November 1979. Iranian students, with the tacit support of Khomeini, seized the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and held 52 American diplomats and citizens hostage for 444 days. The crisis severely damaged U.S.-Iran relations and solidified Khomeini’s anti-Western stance. The hostages were eventually released in January 1981, on the day of President Ronald Reagan’s inauguration.
Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988): In September 1980, Iran was invaded by its western neighbor, Iraq, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, triggering the Iran-Iraq War, one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts of the 20th century. Khomeini framed the war as a defense of Islam and the revolution against secular Arab nationalism. Despite heavy casualties and economic devastation, Khomeini refused to negotiate an early peace, famously declaring that continuing the war was like drinking from a “poisoned chalice.” The war ended in 1988 with a UN-brokered ceasefire, but the human toll was immense, with estimates of over a million dead on both sides.
Khomeini’s Death and Legacy
Death: Khomeini died on June 3, 1989, at the age of 86. His funeral was attended by millions of Iranians, and he was buried in Tehran, where his mausoleum remains a pilgrimage site for many.
Political and Religious Legacy: Khomeini left a profound legacy in both Iranian and global politics. His establishment of a theocratic state based on the concept of Velayat-e Faqih marked a unique model of governance that fused religious authority with political power. He is regarded by many Iranians, especially those who support the Islamic Republic, as a revolutionary hero who liberated Iran from foreign influence and corrupt monarchy. However, his rule was also marked by severe repression, the curtailment of personal freedoms, and violent crackdowns on dissent.
On a broader scale, Khomeini’s revolution inspired Islamic movements across the Muslim world, many of which sought to emulate his model of an Islamic state governed by religious law. His anti-Western, particularly anti-American, stance became a hallmark of Iran’s foreign policy and continues to influence Iranian politics today.
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